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Приложение:
Advertising can be used for a variety of special purposes. Local businesses advertise within a particular geographic area rather than nationwide, corporations sometimes advertise to enhance their reputations rather than to sell products, and international businesses advertise around the world. This course paper is a thorough coverage of these special types of advertising. The prevalence of advertising underscores its many advantages. Of the various forms of promotion, it is the best for reaching mass audiences quickly at a low person cost. It is also the form of promotion over which the organizations has the greatest control. In an advertisement, you can say what ever you want, as long as you stay within the boundaries of the law and conform to the moral and ethical standards of the advertising medium and trade associations. You can promote goods, services, and ideas, using a full range of creative and generating sales leads. In addition, it can rekindle interest in a product whose sales have grown sluggish, as illustrated by the remarkable success of Isuzu's memorable "liar" commercials. While sales of other Japanese cars and trucks were growing by only percent, Isuzu's sales jumped 21 percent within a few months after "Joe suzu" started hawking the cars on TV with subtitles announcing that he was stretching the facts.
The object of our investigation is special types of advertising.
The aim of investigation is to tell about special types of advertising.
The main task of our course paper is to learn the special types of advertising.
The theoretical value of the investigation is different examples on different firms by the theoretical explanation.
The practical value of the investigation is to learn how different kinds of firms do their advertising. The novelty of investigation is to show what modern technologies of advertising the population has archive

1. LOCAL ADVERTISING
As opposed to regional or national advertising, refers to advertising by businesses within a particular city or county to customers within the same geographic area. In 1990, approximately 44 percent of all dollars spent on advertising were for local advertising.
Quite often, local advertising is referred to as retail advertising because it is commonly performed by retail stores. However, retail advertising is not necessarily local - it can be regional or national as well, as the volume of commercials run by national retail firms such as sears and J.C.Penney. Moreover, many businesses not usually thought of as retail stores use local advertising - real estate brokers, banks, movie theaters, auto mechanics, and TV stations, restaurants, museums, and even funeral homes. Local businesses of all types often use public service or issue advertising.
Local advertisers fit into three categories:
* Dealerships or local franchises or regional or national companies that specialize in one main product or product line (such as Toyota, McDonalds, or H&R Block).
* Stores that sell a variety of branded merchandise, usually on a nonexclusive basis ( such as department stores ).
* Specialty businesses and services (such as music stores, shoe repairshops, florists, hair salons, travel agencies).
Businesses in each of these categories have different advertising goes and approaches. Local advertising is very important because most sales are made or lost locally. A national auto manufacturer may spend millions advertising new cars, but its nationwide network of local auto dealers spend just as much or more on a combined basis to bring customers into their showrooms to buy the cars. In fact, if the dealers don't make a strong effort on the local level, the effort of national advertisers may be wasted. So when it comes to consummating the sale, local advertising is where the actions are. The basic principles used by national advertisers are also applicable to local advertising, but local advertisers have special problems that stem from the simple, practical realities of marketing in a local area.
Local and national advertisers differ in basic objectives and strategies, perceived needs of the marketplace, amount of money available to spend on advertising, greater emphasis by local advertisers, on newspaper advertising, use of price as a buying inducement, and the use of specialized help in preparing advertisements.
1.1 TYPES OF LOCAL ADVERTISING
Advertisements are prepared for different purposes, but they basically consist of two types: product advertisements and institutional advertisements.

Product Advertisements

Focused on selling a good or service, product advertisements take three forms: (1) pioneering (or informational), (2) competitive (or persuasive), and (3) reminder. Look at the ads for Visa, Cadillac, and M&Ms to determine the type and objective of each ad.

Product advertisements serve varying purposes

Used in the introductory stage of the product life cycle, pioneering advertisements tell people what a product is, what it can do, and where it can be found. The key objective of a pioneering advertisement (such as the ad for Visa’s new Black card) is to inform the target market. Informational ads, particularly those with specific information, have been found to be interesting, convincing, and effective.
Advertising that promotes a specific brand’s features and benefits is competitive. The objective of these messages is to persuade the target market to select the firm’s brand rather than that of a competitor. An increasingly common form of competitive advertising is comparative advertising, which shows one brand’s strengths relative to those of competitors. The Cadillac ad, for example, highlights the competitive advantage of the Cadillac Escalade hybrid compared to other vehicles such as the BMW X3 and the Volvo XC90. Studies indicate that comparative ads attract more attention and increase the perceived quality of the advertiser’s brand although their impact may vary by product type, message content, and audience gender. Firms that use comparative advertising need market research to provide legal support for their claims.
Reminder advertising is used to reinforce previous knowledge of a product. The M&Ms ad shown reminds consumers about a special event, in this case, Valentine’s Day. Reminder advertising is good for products that have achieved a well-recognized position and are in the mature phase of their product life cycle. Another type of reminder ad, reinforcement, is used to assure current users they made the right choice. One example is used in Dial soap advertisements: “Aren’t you glad you use Dial. Don’t you wish everybody did?”

Institutional Advertisements

The objective of institutional advertisements is to build goodwill or an image for an organization rather than promote a specific good or service. Institutional advertising has been used by companies such as Texaco, Pfizer, and IBM to build confidence in the company name.6 Often this form of advertising is used to support the public relations plan or counter adverse publicity. Four alternative forms of institutional advertisements are often used:
1. Advocacy advertisements state the position of a company on an issue. Chevron places ads encouraging consumers to use less energy. Another form of advocacy advertisement is used when organizations make a request related to a particular action or behavior, such as a request by American Red Cross for blood donations.

Advocacy ad
2. Pioneering institutional advertisements, like the pioneering ads for products discussed earlier, are used for announcements about what a company is, what it can do, or where it is located. Recent Bayer ads stating, “We cure more headaches than you think,” are intended to inform consumers that the company produces many products in addition to aspirin. Amway uses pioneering institutional ads in its “Know You Know” campaign to inform people about the company and its products.
3. Competitive institutional advertisements promote the advantages of one product class over another and are used in markets where different product classes compete for the same buyers. America’s milk processors and dairy farmers use their “Got Milk?” campaign to increase demand for milk as it competes against other beverages.
4. Reminder institutional advertisements, like the product form, simply bring the company’s name to the attention of the target market again. The Army branch of the U.S. military sponsors a campaign to remind potential recruits of the opportunities in the Army.
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF LOCAL ADVERTISING

The objectives of local advertising differ from the objectives of national advertising in both emphasis and time. National manufacturers tend to emphasize long-term objectives of awareness, image, and credibility. On the local, retail level, the advertiser's needs tend to be more immediate, as shown in the checklist of Local Advertising Objectives. The emphasis is on keeping the cash register ringing - increasing traffic, turning over inventory, and bringing in new customers among other things. As a result on the local level, there are constant promotions, sales and clearances, all designed to create immediate activity. The trade-off, of course, is that the day after the promotions or sale the traffic may drop. So to increase traffic again, the merchant may plan another sale or another promotion. Then another and another. This can result in a cycle of sporadic bursts of activity followed by inactivity, sharp peaks and valleys in sales, and the image of a business that should be visited only during a sale. Long-term and short-term objectives work against each other when one is sought at the expense of the other. Successful local advertisers must there fore think of long-term objectives first and then develop short-term goals to help achieve their long-term objectives. This usually increases the emphasis on institutional and regular price-line advertising, improves customer service, and reduces the reliance on sales and clearances for creating traffic.


1.3. PLANNING THE ADVERTISING EFFORT

The key to success in any advertising program, local or national, is adequate planning. Planning is not a one-time occurrence, however, but a continuous process of research evaluation, decision, execution, and review. On the local level, more advertising dollars are wasted because of inadequate planning than for any other reason. The success of Rebio's was due to the fact that Ralf Rubio made planning a continuous, flexible process that allowed for change, improvement, new facts, and new ideas. Several steps are involved in planning the local advertising effort: analyzing the local market and the competition, conducting adequate research, determining objectives and strategy, establishing a realistic budget, and planning media strategy. However the small advertiser will often profit from a bottom-up planning approach. Rubio's success, for example, can be attributed to his starting with a tactic- the fish taco- and then building a complete strategy around it, from the bottom up.


1.4. CREATING THE LOCAL ADVERTISING

One of the most competitive businesses in any local market is the grocery business. Characterized by high overhead, low profit margins, heavy discounting, constant promotion, and miser doses of advertising, food retailing is a difficult and highly competitive business at best. The Tom Thumb Page grocery stores in Dallas had an additional problem. They had elected to avoid price competition whenever possible and to compete instead on the basis of quality and service. This policy made it potentially difficult to attract new customers and create store traffic, because grocery customers tend to be very price-oriented.
The Tom Thumb Chain had been doing "maintenance advertising" in routine food-day newspaper sections for about four years. When they hired a new Charles Cullum explained their situation and their objectives. They asked the agency to develop a campaign that would show that Tom Thumb was, in fact, very competitive in giving top value even though the prices might be slightly higher. Barbara Harwell and Chuck Beau, the agency's creative directors, responded by developing a local institutional campaign that made grocery advertising history. They suggested opening the campaign with a television promotion for Thanksgiving turkeys. They convinced the Cullums and Tom Hailstone, the Chain's president, that to present a truly quality image they would have to create an absolutely outstanding commercial in terms of production quality. Furthermore, to communicate that Tom Thumb's policies truly warranted higher prices, they pervaded the clients to make a bold, risky statement that would impress the viewing public. Hairston and the Cullums agreed two weeks before Thanksgiving, the campaign began.
The Commercial Opened with a tight close-up of a live turkey. As the off-camera announcer spoke, the camera pulled slowly back, and the turkey rested to the copy with an occasional "gobble". The announcer said: At Tom Thumb we stand behind everything we sell... And that's a promise. It's always been that way. Even when we started, Mr. Cullum said, "We want our customers to be happy with every thing they buy in this store. If a woman buys a turkey from us and comes back the day after Thanksgiving with a bag of pones and says she didn't like it we'll give her money back or give her another turkey."The moment he said that, the turkey reacted with a big "gobble" and ran off-camera.
The commercial closed on the company lag with the announcer saying, "That's the way we do business at Tom Thumb... we stand behind everything we sell, and that's a promise." The company merchandised the campaign by printing the slogan "We stand behind everything we sell... and that's a promise". On grocery sacks, on red lapel buttons for employees, and on outdoor billboards. The audio portions of the commercials were aired as radio spots. Most important employee-orientation meetings were held to explain the concepts to the company's personal and to make absolutely sure that any customers returning merchandise received a friendly, cordial smile from the employee handling the transaction. The reaction to the campaign was astounding. First, it became the topic of local conversation. Then people began to wonder how many turkeys' people began to talk about the campaign and showed the commercial in their newscasts. Finally, the top disk jockey in Dallas sponsored a contest inviting listeners to guess how many turkeys would be returned to Tom Thumb. The day after Thanksgiving, the local TV film crews waited at the stores to count and interview people carrying in bags of bones. One customer said she returned a turkey and got her money back with no questions asked. Another said she was given her money immediately but that she then gave the money back. She had just wanted to test them to see whether they were telling the truth.
The final score was 30.000 turkeys sold and only 18 returned - a fantastic marketing, advertising, and publicity success. Since then, the store has been reported in numerous grocery and advertising trade journals, and Tom Thumb Page successfully continued the "we stand behind everything we sell" advertising campaign theme.
This "talking turkey" example shows that creativity in developing an ad campaign is just as important at the local level as it is on the national level, Local advertisers often fail to realize that their print and broadcast messages the budgetary constraints of local businesses, creativity becomes even more important in grabbing the consumer's attention. The final section of this chapter addresses elements that go into creating local ads, and the kinds of creative assistance available to local advertisers.


1.5. SEEKING CREATIVE ASSISTANCE

Local businesses have a number of sources they can turn to for creative help, including advertising agencies, the local media, free-lancers and consultants, creative boutiques, syndicated art services, and wholesalers, manufacturers, and trade associations.


2."PUBLIC RELATIONS, CORPORATE ADVERTISING, AND NONCOMMERCIAL ADVERTISING"
2. 1. THE ROLE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

Public relations (PR) is a term that is widely misunderstood and misused to describe anything from selling to hosting, when in fact it is a very specific communications process. Every company, organization, association, and government or says. They might be employees, customers, stockholders, competitors, suppliers, or Just the general population of consumers. Each of these groups may be referred to as one of the organization's publics. The process of public relations manages the organization's relationships with these publics.
As soon as word of the Valdez Spill got out, the PR staff at Exxon assumed responsibility for handling the barrage of phone calls from the press and the public and for managing all company communications with the media.
Simultaneously, other company departments had to deal with numerous local, state, and federal government agencies and with the community at large - not just in Valdez, Alaska, but anywhere in the world where someone was touched by the disaster. In addition, myriad other publics suddenly popped into the spotlight demanding special attention and care: Alaskan fishermen, both houses of congress, local politicians, the financial community, stockholder, employed, the local press, national networks, Exxon dealers, and environmental groups, for starters.
Companies and organizations know they must consider the public impact of their actions and decisions because of the powerful effect of public opinion. This is especially true in time of crisis, emergency, or disaster. But it is just as true for major policy decisions concerning changes in business management, pricing policies, labor negotiations, introduction of new products, or changes in distribution methods. Each of these decisions affects different groups in different ways. Conversely, effective administrators can use the power of these groups' opinions to bring about positive changes.
In short, the purpose of ever using labeled public relations is to influence public opinion toward building goodwill and a positive reputation for the organization. In one instance, the PR effort might be to rally public support; in another, to obtain public understanding or neutrality or in still another, simply to respond to inquiries. Well-executed public relations is a long-term activity that molds good relationships between an organization and its publics. Put yourself in the position of Exxon's top public relations manager at the time of the Valdez accident. What do you suppose was the major thrust of the PR staff's efforts in the days immediately following the discovery of the oil spill? What might they have been called on to do?
We will discuss these and other questions in this chapter. But first it is important to understand the relationship between public relations and advertising they are so closely related but so often misunderstood.


2.2. CORPORATE ADVERTISING

As mentioned earlier, corporate advertising is basic tool of public relations. It includes public relations advertising, institutional advertising, corporate identity advertising, and recruitment advertising. Their use depends on the particular situation, the audience or public being addressed, and the message the firm needs to communicate.

The message and purpose of corporate advertising

To be truly labeled corporate the ad must deal with company’s policies, functions, facilities, objectives, ideas & standards, build favorable opinion about the company’s management, technology skill, social contributions enhance the financial structure or investment qualities of the company or promote it a good place to work.
Thus, the corporate advertising endeavors to promote activities by which oral as well as visual messages are directed towards the public on a continuous basis. The purpose is to inform & influence the public either to consume products or services or to act or be inclined favorably towards ideas, organizations or personalities featured in the campaign.
In order to produce successful image of corporate advertisements, the following are a few guiding principles:
1. Set proper objectives & strategies.
2. Define the target.
3. Select appropriate media.
4. Develop correct message.
5. Control production & budget
6. Evaluate the effects.
In today’s knowledgeable society the corporate advertisers have been quick to learn the value of such advertisement. Therefore, the PR professionals & corporate advertisers have to be conscious of the power of advertising & of the need to use that power for the common good.
The image of an organization is multi-faceted & in the real sense it is not tractable. The publics like shareholders, investors, suppliers, customers or employees view the organization from different perspectives. Corporate advertising interestingly does not ask for any action on the part of these publics except passive approval.
There is a need for greater image development through corporate advertising. Regardless of how high a company’s products are held in esteem by the public, this image is not transferable automatically to management competence or to positive attitudes about the company’s future direction.

Nature and scope

The different types of corporate ads in use are as under:
1. Corporate ad looking like a product ad which encourages people to trust and enjoy dealing with the company.
2. Social service ad to establish reputation.
3. Corporate ad to convey specific information to the public & at the same time to promote the organization.
4. Product ad taking corporate like to give added value to the product.
5. Institutional ad devoted to building customer attitudes relating to the organization. The basic objective is to promote patronage or favour on the basis of these attitudes.
6. Public issue & financial ads for information as well as for direct campaigns.
Government advertising in another field for image advertising that has developed over the years. The government advertising is all pervasive, reaching into all lives in all directions & entering into all activities today the government employs advertising to encourage purchase of its bonds & financial instruments, to get votes for the party to make government decisions understandable and acceptable, to publicise development work, & any other activity which has a bearing on the public.
Such advertisements are issued at the municipal, state & central level. Indeed the government has found advertising as the most powerful instrument of communication & it is making conscious efforts to build in own kind of corporate image.

Objectives of corporate advertising

1. Create a good citizen image through consistent & dedicated effort.
2. Convey the organizations commitment to the concerned publics as well as to the masses & eliminate prejudices, if any held by opinion leaders in particular & by the public in general.
3. Boost both employee management relation & employee morale enabling all members of the internal public to discover a new vitality.
4. Raise money from the public which gives rise to demand for resplendent images like financial reliability, leadership, strength & competence.

5. On the marketing front it is easier & cheaper to sell product or services with less marketing budget.
It is noteworthy to state that one of the most important developments in corporate advertising whether in India or abroad is its increasing maturity. With maturity has come a knowledge of how to operate with a social and economic system.

Is Corporate Advertising necessary?

In the field of Corporate advertising PR is in a stronger position to employ the weapons such as TV, Home Video & Satellite etc. for specific purposes. The advertising professionals do not hesitate to draw on the skill and knowledge of PR experts who are expected to be master craftsman in the techniques of corporate advertising and communication.
1. There was a time when corporate, prestige or institutional advertising was the advertising world’s concept of public relations. Judging by some of the advertisements, mostly in full color, which appear in business newspapers and magazines like fortune and The Economist, it still is! Television viewers, used to hard-selling ads for detergents and dog foods, have been perplexed by corporate commercials because they did not seem to be selling anything.
It is difficult to tell what some corporate ads are supposed to do beyond fill the coffers of publishers & advertising agents. They make a lot of journals look very pretty.
True, it has been said that a company needs to be seen. There are cheaper& probably more effective ways of doing it than full-color press advertising, although it seems to appeal to Arab banks.
2. The improbability of corporate advertising was brought home to me when a marketing research interviewer phoned me at home one evening & apparently knew that I was a subscriber to The Economist. By the end of a pleasant telephone interview we both knew that it was possible to read The Economist for years, to be aware of pages of full-color corporate ads, to recall the names of some of the advertisers but to be oblivious to what they were saying and to fail to remember their strap line slogans.
3. If corporate advertising is to be justified- and the skepticism expressed above is not meant to imply that it cannot work- you have to ask two questions. What do I want to achieve and to whom it should be addressed?
4. One wonders how often these questions are ever asked. So many corporate advertising campaigns seem to have a standard media schedule, of which The Economist is an example. The Economist is probably the last place to put some of the corporate advertising which contributes to its weekly bulk. There are times when it would be appropriate to put corporate ads in popular newspapers like the Sun and the Mirror.
5. What is the purpose of corporate advertising, and why must advertising be used for PR purposes? Some good questions there!
To take the second question first, the only justification for using advertising for PR purposes is when it is essential to state exactly what you want to say, to do it as boldly as possible, & to do it in certain media on a certain date. In other words, you want to have complete control of your message.
The answer to the first question is that corporate advertising aims to enhance the corporate image by saying favorable things about it.
6. In a sense that a perverse form of PR for surely advertising. The media tend to assume that bad news is good news and good news is no sort of news at all.
7. Corporate advertising can therefore serve the purpose of presenting the good news about an organization which the media would not normally print. This is a tendentious argument because it admits the failure of traditional media relations.
8. Given that such a situation exists, corporate advertising can be a legitimate form of PR, adopting a positive tactic in urgent circumstances. This is very different from merely flying the flag which is what so much of this sort of advertising seems to be.
9. Serious corporate advertising therefore has a purpose: it aims to convey an urgent message to a selected public.
10. Let us take a hypothetical example. Suppose your company has suffered bad publicity because of a series of set-backs. Your share price has fallen. The trade is wary. All sorts of risks exist. You could lose orders, key staff could desert you, & a take over bid might well be imminent. And yet you know that the truth is very different. There is no need for panic. You have a new factory coming on-steam to produce a market-leader, & the good news is about to break. To stop the rot, and create a favorable market situation, you could place a confidence booster corporate advertising campaign in journals as varied as the Financial Times, the trade, technical, professional & local press, plus the leading nationals read by your distributors & customers.
Now that would be a real purpose-built corporate campaign which was aimed at the right people in order to actually do something. They did not use pretty colored pictures; instead they used dramatic headlines & typography.
11. There is another kind of corporate advertising which is very effective & that is issue or advocacy advertising. Used by mobile in the states, it has been dubbed op-ed advertising because such advertisements have been deliberately placed opposite leader-page editorials. The objectives of this kind of PR advertising are two-fold as will be explained. In a sense, this is a kind of lobbying or pressuring via the media- usually the press, but TV can be used.
Whereas the typical British corporate advertising is full of pretty pictures and highly literacy copy, and talks of great achievements, historical record or the excellence of its research, the American style issue advertising tackles issues of government policies on, say, pollution, the environment nuclear power, drugs or crime, or it presents the case for an industry under attack from either government or pressure groups.
12. Oil companies have used media such as the Sunday color magazines & TV to show how they are protecting wild life or are engaged in other energy industries. Leading up to privatization, a number of enterprises have used corporate advertising to establish a corporate image. We have also seen companies using this form of PR to explain their diversification when they were often thought to merely monopolize in one industry.
Issue advertising is not quite like the propaganda ads which certain interested parties published in Britain in the 60s and 70s to protect themselves from the labour governments nationalization plans. Issue advertising seeks to create better understanding of a company’s attitude, position or even desire to have a vary positive use of advertising for a PR purpose.
It is vital to distinguish between vanity and purposeful institutional advertising.
13. There are, of course, other kinds of corporate & financial advertising which are legitimate. You may wish to present your company’s case during an industrial dispute, or publish a summary of the annual report, & the offer of a copy of the full report may be advertised.
Decide why you need corporate advertising. Is it to present a case quickly in words & media of your choosing? Is it to position yourself firmly in the market place? Is it to clearly identify & establish your corporate image? Or do you want to put on record your achievements? Or do you want to show how you are responding to government policies, or contributing to social issues as Shell and BP have done? Maybe you want to show the contribution you are making to the economy. These are all vary positive aims. Prestige derives from such advertising, but that is not its sole purpose.


2.3. PUBLIC RELATIONS ADVERTISING

Public relations professionals present the face of an organization or individual, usually to articulate its objectives and official views on issues of relevance, primarily to the media. Public relations contributes to the way an organization is perceived by influencing the media and maintaining relationships with stakeholders. According to Dr. Jacquie L’Etang from Queen Margaret University, public relations professionals can be viewed as "discourse workers specializing in communication and the presentation of argument and employing rhetorical strategies to achieve managerial aims."
Specific public relations disciplines include:
Financial public relations – communicating financial results and business strategy
Consumer/lifestyle public relations – gaining publicity for a particular product or service
Crisis communication – responding in a crisis
Internal communications – communicating within the company itself
Government relations – engaging government departments to influence public policy
Food-centric relations - communicating specific information centered on foods, beverages and wine.
Building and managing relationships with those who influence an organization or individual’s audiences has a central role in doing public relations. After a public relations practitioner has been working in the field, they accumulate a list of relationships that become an asset, especially for those in media relations.
Within each discipline, typical activities include publicity events, speaking opportunities, press releases, newsletters, blogs, social media, press kits and outbound communication to members of the press. Video and audio news releases (VNRs and ANRs) are often produced and distributed to TV outlets in hopes they will be used as regular program content.
Audience targeting
A fundamental technique used in public relations is to identify the target audience and to tailor messages to be relevant to each audience.[14] Sometimes the interests of differing audiences and stakeholders common to a public relations effort necessitate the creation of several distinct but complementary messages. These messages however should be relevant to each other, thus creating a consistency to the overall message and theme.
On the other hand, stakeholder theory identifies people who have a stake in a given institution or issue.[15] All audiences are stakeholders (or presumptive stakeholders), but not all stakeholders are audiences. For example, if a charity commissions a public relations agency to create an advertising campaign to raise money to find a cure for a disease, the charity and the people with the disease are stakeholders, but the audience is anyone who is likely to donate money.
Messaging
Messaging is the process of creating a consistent story around a product, person, company or service. Messaging aims to avoid having readers receive contradictory or confusing information that will instill doubt in their purchasing choice or other decisions that have an impact on the company. Brands aim to have the same problem statement, industry viewpoint or brand perception shared across sources and media.
Social media marketing
Digital marketing is the use of Internet tools and technologies such as search engines, Web 2.0 social bookmarking, new media relations, blogging and social media marketing. Interactive PR allows companies and organizations to disseminate information without relying solely on mainstream publications and communicate directly with the public, customers and prospects. We will continue to witness changes in public relations practices. People wishing to pursue a future with PR will be required to think differently. They will have to adopt new strategies and learn new ways to conduct searches. During the first years of social media, PR had a hard time keeping up with the speed of these new technologies (Breakenridge, 2012). PR practitioners have always relied on the media such as TV, Radio, and Magazines to promote their ideas and messages tailored specifically for a given audience. Social media marketing is not only a new way to achieve that goal but it's also a continuation of a strategy that existed for decades. Lister et al. said that "Digital media can be seen as a continuation and extension of a principal or technique that was already in place". PR professionals are well aware of the fact that digital technology is used in a practically different way than before. For instance, cell phones are no longer just devices we use to talk to one another. They are also used for online shopping, dating, learning and getting the most up to date news around the world.
Spin
Spin has been interpreted historically to mean overt deceit meant to manipulate the public, but since the 1990s has shifted to describing a "polishing of the truth". Today spin refers to providing a certain interpretation of information meant to sway public opinion. Companies may use spin to create the appearance of the company or other events are going in a slightly different direction than they actually are. Within the field of public relations, spin is seen as a derogatory term, interpreted by professionals as meaning blatant deceit and manipulation. Skilled practitioners of spin are sometimes called "spin doctors".
The techniques of spin include selectively presenting facts and quotes that support ideal positions (cherry picking), the so-called "non-denial denial," phrasing that in a way presumes unproven truths, euphemisms for drawing attention away from items considered distasteful, and ambiguity in public statements. Another spin technique involves careful choice of timing in the release of certain news so it can take advantage of prominent events in the news.
Negative PR
Negative public relations, also called dark public relations (DPR) and in some earlier writing "Black PR", is a process of destroying the target's reputation and/or corporate identity. The objective in DPR is to discredit someone else, who may pose a threat to the client's business or be a political rival. DPR may rely on IT security, industrial espionage, social engineering and competitive intelligence. Common techniques include using dirty secrets from the target, producing misleading facts to fool a competitor.
Politics and civil society
In Propaganda (1928), Bernays argued that the manipulation of public opinion was a necessary part of democracy. In public relations, lobby groups are created to influence government policy, corporate policy, or public opinion, typically in a way that benefits the sponsoring organization.
When a lobby group hides its true purpose and support base, it is known as a front group. Front groups are a form of astroturfing, because they intend to sway the public or the government without disclosing their financial connection to corporate or political interests. They create a fake grass-roots movement by giving the appearance of a trusted organization that serves the public, when they actually serve their sponsors.
Politicians also employ public relations professionals to help project their views, policies and even personalities to their best advantages.


2.4 CORPORATE/INSTITUTIONAL ADVERTISING

In recent years the term corporate advertising has come to denote that broad area of nonproduct advertising used specifically to enhance a company's image and increase lagging awareness. The traditional term for this its institutional advertising.
Institutional or corporate ad campaigns may serve a variety of purposes - to report the company's accomplishments, to position the company competitively in the market, to reflect a change in corporate personality, to shore up stock prices, to improve employee morale, or to avoid a communications problem with agents, suppliers, dealers, or customers.
Companies and even professional advertising people have historically questioned, or simply misunderstood, the effectiveness of corporate advertising. Retailers, in particular, have clung to the idea that institutional advertising may be pretty or nice, but that it "doesn't make the cash register ring". However, a series of marketing research studies sponsored by Time magazine and conducted by the Jankelovich, Kelly & White research firm offered dramatic evidence to the contrary.
In the first of these studies, 700 middle- and upper-management executives were interviewed in the top 25 U.S. markets. The researchers evaluated five companies that were currently doing corporate advertising and five that were not. They found that the companies using corporate advertising registered significantly better awareness, familiarity, and overall impression than companies using only product advertising. In fact, the five corporate advertisers in the study drew higher ratings in every one of 16 characteristics measured, including being known for quality products, having competent management, and paying higher dividends. Perhaps the most interesting aspect of the research was the fact that the five companies with no corporate advertising spent far more for total advertising than did the firms engaged in corporate advertising.
David Ogilvy, the founder and creative head of Ogilvy & Mather, has been an outspoken advocate of corporate advertising. However, he has been appalled by most corporate advertising, characterizing it as filled with "pomposity", "Vague generalizations," and "fatuous platitudes". Corporate advertising has also been criticized for oblivious to the needs of the audience.
Responding to such criticisms and to other forces in the marketplace, corporations have made policies and campaigns. Expenditures for this type over the last decade. The primary medium used for corporate advertising is consumer (primarily business) magazines, followed by network television.
A change in message strategy has also accompanied this increase in corporate ad spending. In the past, most corporate ads were designed primarily to create goodwill for the company. Today with many corporations diversifying and competition from for ling advertisers increasing, these same firms find their corporate ads must do much more. Their ads must accomplish specific objectives- develop awareness of the company and its activities, attract quality employees, tie a diverse product line together, and take a stand on important public issues.
Another category of corporate advertising is called advocacy advertising. Corporations use it to communicate their views on issues that affect tailors its stand to protect its position in the marketplace.
Corporate advertising is also increasingly being used to set the company up for future sales. Although this is traditionally the realm of product advertising, many advertisers have instituted "umbrella" campaigns that simultaneously communicate message about the products and the company. This has been termed market prep corporate advertising a GTE umbrella campaign, for example, emphasized the company's products and services in a way that pointed up its overall technological sophistication.
Of course, no amount of image advertising can accomplish desired goals if the image does not match the corporation. As noted image consultant Clive Chajet put it, " You can't get away with a dies enounce between the image and the reality - at least not for long ".If, for example, a sophisticated high-tech corporation like IBM tried to project a homey, small-town family image. It would lose credibility very quickly.


2.5. CORPORATE IDENTITY ADVERTISING

Companies take pride in their logos and corporate signatures in fact, the graphic designs that identity corporate names and products are considered valuable assets of the company, and great effort is expended to protect their individuality and ownership. The corporate logo may even dominate advertisement. What does a company do, though, when it decides to change its name, logos, trademarks, or corporate signatures, as when it merges with another company? How does it communicate that change to the market it serves and to other influential publics? This is the job of corporate identity advertising.
When software publisher Productivity Products International changed its name to Stepstone Inc., it faced an interesting dilemma. It needed to advertise the change. But in Europe, a key market for the firm, a corporate name change implies that the business has gone bankrupt and is starting over with a new identity. So, rather than announcing its new name in the print media, stepson used a direct-mail campaign. It mailed an announcement of its name change to customers, prospects, investors, and the press. The campaign was a success: within days of the mailing, almost 70 customers and prospects called stepstone to find out more about the company and its products. More familiar corporate name changes from the recent past include the switch from America of Western Bank corporation to First Intestate Bankcorp; the change of Consolidated Foods to replace the premerger identities of Boroughs and Sperry.
Corporate visual identity plays a significant role in the way an organization presents itself to both internal and external stakeholders. In general terms, a corporate visual identity expresses the values and ambitions of an organization, its business, and its characteristics. Four functions of corporate visual identity can be distinguished. Three of these are aimed at external stakeholders.
First, a corporate visual identity provides an organisation with visibility and "recognizability". For virtually all profit and non-profit organisations, it is of vital importance that people know that the organization exists and remember its name and core business at the right time.
Second, a corporate visual identity symbolizes an organization for external stakeholders, and, hence, contributes to its image and reputation (Schultz, Hatch and Larsen, 2000). Van den Bosch, De Jong and Elving (2005) explored possible relationships between corporate visual identity and reputation, and concluded that corporate visual identity plays a supportive role in corporate reputations.
Third, a corporate visual identity expresses the structure of an organization to its external stakeholders, visualising its coherence as well as the relationships between divisions or units. Olins (1989) is well known for his "corporate identity structure", which consists of three concepts: monolithic brands for companies which have a single brand, identity in which different brands are developed for parts of the organization or for different product lines, and an endorsed identity with different brands which are (visually) connected to each other. Although these concepts introduced by Olins are often presented as the corporate identity structure, they merely provide an indication of the visual presentation of (parts of) the organization. It is therefore better to describe it as a "corporate visual identity structure".
A fourth, internal function of corporate visual identity relates to employees' identification with the organization as a whole and/or the specific departments they work for (depending on the corporate visual strategy in this respect). Identification appears to be crucial for employees, and corporate visual identity probably plays a symbolic role in creating such identification.
The definition of the corporate visual identity management is:
Corporate visual identity management involves the planned maintenance, assessment and development of a corporate visual identity as well as associated tools and support, anticipating developments both inside and outside the organization, and engaging employees in applying it, with the objective of contributing to employees' identification with and appreciation of the organization as well as recognition and appreciation among external stakeholders.
Special attention is paid to corporate identity in times of organizational change. Once a new corporate identity is implemented, attention to corporate identity related issues generally tends to decrease. However, corporate identity needs to be managed on a structural basis, to be internalized by the employees and to harmonize with future organizational developments.
Efforts to manage the corporate visual identity will result in more consistency and the corporate visual identity management mix should include structural, cultural and strategic aspects.[5] Guidelines, procedures and tools can be summarized as the structural aspects of managing the corporate visual identity.
However, as important as the structural aspects may be, they must be complemented by two other types of aspects. Among the cultural aspects of corporate visual identity management, socialization – i.e., formal and informal learning processes – turned out to influence the consistency of a corporate visual identity. Managers are important as a role model and they can clearly set an example. This implies that they need to be aware of the impact of their behavior, which has an effect on how employees behave. If managers pay attention to the way they convey the identity of their organization, including the use of a corporate visual identity, this will have a positive effect on the attention employees give to the corporate visual identity.
Further, it seems to be important that the organization communicates the strategic aspects of the corporate visual identity. Employees need to have knowledge of the corporate visual identity of their organization – not only the general reasons for using the corporate visual identity, such as its role in enhancing the visibility and recognizability of the organization, but also aspects of the story behind the corporate visual identity. The story should explain why the design fits the organization and what the design – in all of its elements – is intended to express.

Visual identity history

Nearly 7,000 years ago, Transylvanian potters inscribed their personal marks on the earthenware they created. If one potter made better pots than another, naturally, his mark held more value than his competitors’. Religions created some of the most recognized identity marks: the Christian cross, the Judaic Star of David, and the Islamic crescent moon. In addition, Kings and nobles in medieval times had clothing, armor, flags, shields, tableware, entryways, and manuscript bindings that all bore coats of arms and royal seals. The symbols depicted a lord’s lineage, aspirations, familial virtues, as well as memoirs to cavalry, infantry, and mercenaries of who they were fighting for on the battlefields.
A trademark became a symbol of individuals’ professional qualifications to perform a particular skill by the 15th century. For example, the Rod of Asclepius on a physician's sign signified that the doctor was a well-trained practitioner of the medical arts. Simple graphics such as the caduceus carried so much socioeconomic and political weight by the 16th century, that government offices were established throughout Europe to register and protect the growing collection of trademarks used by numerous craft guilds.
The concept of visually trademarking one’s business spread widely during the Industrial Revolution. The shift of business in favor of non-agricultural enterprise caused business, and corporate consciousness, to boom. Logo use became a mainstream part of identification, and over time, it held more power than being a simple identifier. Some logos held more value than others, and served more as assets than symbols.
Logos are now the visual identifiers of corporations. They became components of corporate identities by communicating brands and unifying messages. The evolution of symbols went from a way for a king to seal a letter, to how businesses establish their credibility and sell everything from financial services to hamburgers. Therefore, although the specific terms "corporate image" and "brand identity" didn’t enter business or design vocabulary until the 1940s, within twenty years they became key elements to business success.
Corporate colours
Corporate colours (or company colours) are one of the most instantly recognizable elements of a corporate visual identity and promote a strong non-verbal message on the company's behalf. Examples of corporate colours:
1. Red for Coca-Cola
2. Blue for IBM, nicknamed "Big Blue"
3. Brown for UPS, "What can Brown do for you"
4. Light Teal for Korean Air
Nation branding

The ideas of corporate identity may be applied to national identity. For example, although the United States is not a corporation, it still has organizational components and has a certain image and identity. The US is founded on certain principles, values, and beliefs, and at the same time, has a diverse and widely recognizable popular culture. Because of distinct founding principles, and the way US culture operates, the US too can be observed as a brand. Former United States Secretary of State Colin Powell once said, "We’re selling a product. That product we are selling is democracy."
Images and identity do not always have to be planned and built by an organization, they also can be attributed to an organization by others' interpretations. During the Cold War, Coca-Cola, Marilyn Monroe, and Baywatch were booming in popularity and became obsessions of popular American culture. These images portrayed confidence and superiority in American media, therefore the USA seemed more secure and superior during the war. With the growth of the media, popular culture and celebrities still seem to define America in certain ways. Images of Brad Pitt and Mickey Mouse are easily associated to the US. The US has evolved into a nation with industries focused solely on celebrity gossip, TV shows, music, and blockbuster hits, making the US a highly-mediated nation with a strong focus on celebrity.
In addition to the "celebrity" identity factor, there have been more strategic and patriotic images used to re-brand the country as well. After the September 11 attacks, Bush administration initiated the re-brand of the United States from "global bully" to a "compassionate hegemon". Many American citizens contributed to the act of patriotism by placing American flag bumper stickers on their cars, purple ribbons on trees in their yards, or hanging flags in their windows, all to recreate the feeling and image of nationwide pride and support.
2.6 RECRUITMENT ADVERTISING

When the prime objective of corporate advertising is to attract employment applications, companies use recruitment advertising such as the Chiat/Da ad in Exhibit 18-10. Recruitment advertising is most frequently found in the classified sections of daily newspapers and is typically the responsibility of the personnel department rather than the advertising department. Recruitment advertising has become such a large field, though, that many advertising agencies now have recruitment specialists on their staffs. In fact, some agencies specialize completely in recruitment advertising, and their clients are corporate personnel managers rather than advertising department managers. These agencies create, write, and place classified advertisements in news papers around the country and prepare recruitment display ads for specialized trade publications. So far in this chapter, we have discussed only the advertising of commercial organizations. But nonprofit organizations also advertise. The government charities, trade associations, and religious groups, for example, use the same kinds of creative and media strategies as their counterparts in the for-profit sector to convey messages to the public. But unlike commercial advertisers whose goal is to create awareness, image, or brand loyalty on the pan o' consumers, noncommercial organizations use advertising to affect consumer opinions, perceptions, or behavior-with no profit motive. While commercial advertising is used to stimulate sales.


2. NONCOMMERCIAL ADVERTISING
Used to stimulate donations, to persuade people to vote one way or another or to bring attention to social causes.
If a specific commercial objective for a new shampoo is to change people'; buying habits, the analogous noncommercial objective for an energy conservation program might be to change people's activity habits, such as turning off the lights. The latter is an example of demarcating, which means the advertiser is actually trying to get consumers to buy less of a product 01 service. Exhibit 18-11 compares objectives of commercial and noncommercial advertisers.


3.1 EXAMPLES OF NONCOMMERCIAL ADVERTISING

Recent example of effective media campaigns include:
Healthy Lifestyles. In the early Eighties, Stanford University conducted a five-year public communications campaign to improve the health of people living in Monterey and Salinas, California on the premise that information can influence the cognitive attitudes that govern behavior. By utilizing a sophisticated media campaign, generally associated with commercial advertising, health promotion messages were delivered through newspapers, radio, television, pamphlets, classes, contests, on-the-job education, point-of-purchase posters, grocery bag inserts, tips for children, and a weekly medical column. Researchers estimate that every adult had at least two exposures a week.
After five years, surveys showed that citizens of these two cities had a 13 percent drop in smoking and changes in blood pressure and cholesterol were better than those found in two control cities not exposed to the media campaign. County officials estimate savings of $38 million in medical costs, while the campaign cost $340,000 a year: a cost-benefit ratio of better than 100 to 1.
Population. In Thailand in 1974, Mechai Viravaidya, founded the Population and Community Development Association, a private not-for-profit organization, to foster family planning, distribute birth control devices, and curb its birthrate. As of 1989, in just fifteen years, Thailand's population growth was cut in half, from 3.2 to 1.6 percent. Employing local media, humor and showmanship, Mechai has made population control a national mission. Seventy percent of Thai couples practice family planning. Without the program, it is estimated that Thailand's population of 54 million, in 1989, would have been 64 million.
Recycling in the U.S. Prior to the late 80s, the American public resisted efforts to re-introduce recycling, which had been widely practiced during World War II. People were accustomed to throwing away used newspapers, bottles and cans without consideration of the economic or social consequences. For an affluent, consumption driven society, the convenience of disposability was paramount. The public attitude toward recycling illustrates two key points about behavior change and non-commercial advertising. First, people are good at reacting to events but not at anticipating them. Second, any messages or suggested action needs to be compatible with group values and beliefs. Recycling was not really accepted until the public was made aware that: natural resources are finite; collection of litter was costing taxpayers billions of dollars; landfill space is limited, expensive and potentially hazardous. Recycling became more relevant as media covered the issue, the public came to recognize that it was in their economic and environmental self-interest.
The Manhattan-based Environmental Defense (ED) has promoted recycling in the U.S. since 1988 in partnership with the Ad Council. The nationwide public service advertising campaign's slogan, "If You're Not Recycling, You're Throwing It All Away," is juxtaposed with an image of the Earth floating in the dark void of space to create a compelling message.
To illustrate the potential impact of well-conceived, long-term non-commercial advertising, consider the recycling campaign's results: according to EDF since the campaign was inaugurated, it has received over $150 million worth of donated media time/space. And it has helped: raise the overall national rate of recycling from 10 to 21%; expand curbside recycling programs, from 600 to over 7,000; and generate over 305,000 requests for information on recycling (more than 700 a week). A 1990 Roper poll found that recycling was the most widespread of activities that individuals are doing to improve the environment in the U.S. - and was growing the most rapidly.
"Un-marketing" Drugs. While the U.S. government has pumped billions of dollars into the interdiction of drugs with disappointing results, the Partnership for a Drug Free America (PDFA) has employed sophisticated marketing techniques designed to "un-market" drugs among all age and demographic groups. Surveys demonstrate that its advertising campaigns have helped achieve a shift in the public's attitude toward drug use among all age and demographic groups. This is significant because an individual's attitude has been shown to govern behavior.
The knowledge of these attitudinal shifts and the correlation with the advertising was established in two scientific studies of over 7,000 preteens, teenagers, college students, adults who responded to questionnaires (the benchmark study, conducted in February 1987, was followed in March 1988). These studies demonstrate that advertising can change attitudes and motivate behavior, and also that it is more effective when frequency of exposure approaches strategic marketing levels (four or more exposures a week).
Un-marketing smoking. In 1993 and 1994, the State of California launched a 150 million dollar anti-smoking campaign, the most extensive non-commercial advertising campaign ever mounted; it helped to boost the rate at which its smokers quit to three times the national average. However, according to the Federal Trade Commission, the tobacco industry spent 6 billion on national advertising and promotions in 1993 alone - more than 40 times the California state's media spending.


3.2 TYPES OF NONCOMMERCIAL ADVERTISING

One way to categorize the various types of noncommercial advertising is by the organizations that use them. For instance, advertising is used by churches, schools, universities, charitable organizations, and many other nonbusiness institutions. We also see advertising by associations, such as labor groups, professional organizations, and trade and civic associations. In addition, we witness millions of dollars' worth of advertising placed ^government organizations: the U.S. Army, Navy, Marine, Corps, and Postal Service; the Social Security Administration; the Internal Revenue Service; and various state chambers of commerce. In addition, in election years we are bombarded with all sorts of political advertising that qualifies as noncommercial. The Advertising Council Most of the national PSAs you see on television have been placed there by the Advertising Council, a private, nonprofit organization that links noncommercial campaign sponsors with ad agencies. The sponsors pay for production costs, while the ad agencies donate their creative services.


3.3 ADVERTISING COUNCIL

The Ad Council's policy today is basically the same as when it began during World War II: "Accept no subsidy from government and remain independent of it. Conduct campaigns of service to the nation at large, avoiding regional, sectarian, or special-interest drives of all kinds. Remain nonpanisan and nonpolitical. Conduct the Council on a voluntary basis. Accept no project that does not lend itself to the advertising method. Accept no campaign with a commercial interest unless the public interest is obviously over riding".
Among familiar campaigns created by the Ad Council are those for the United Negro College Fund ("A mind is a terrible thing to waste"); child abuse prevention ("Help destroy a family tradition"); the United Way ("It works for all of us"); crime prevention ("Take a bite out of crime"); and the U.S. Department of Transportation ("Drinking and driving can kill a friendship"). Exhibit 18-17 shows frames from an Ad Council commercial that advocates a healthy diet. The Ad Council's two longest-running campaigns are those for the American Red Cross and forest fire prevention. According to the Ad Council's research, the number of forest fires has been cut in half over the life of the Smokey Bear campaign. The council is currently playing a role in overseeing the Partnership for a Drug-Free America effort.

3. INTERNATIONAL ADVERTISING
3.1. GROWTH AND STATUS OF INTERNATIONAL ADVERTISING

In this text, we have discussed marketing and advertising planning, advertising creativity, and the advertising media. We have also offered overall advertising perspectives and focused on some special types of advertising, however, most of this discussion has centered on advertising as practiced in the United States and Canada. The question arises, therefore, as to how well such practice applies to advertising in the rest of the world. Companies advertising abroad face a variety of difficulties and opportunities, as we will see in this chapter.
A bit of history will help put the current explos